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Training Principles
The principles of training are the underlying theories that can be used in constructing a training program. They should be applied to all of the training methods.
This refers to training for the relevant requirements of the sport. Specificity in training is one of the most important principles. It ensures that an athlete is physiologically adapted to meet the requirements of their specific sport. For example, it would be pointless for a marathon runner to do a lot of cycling as this does not replicate the muscle actions of the marathon. There may be signs of lack of specificity in training. A good sign is disproportionate soreness in a particular muscle group after competition. For example, a cricket player may notice that a specific muscle in their back always pulls up a lot more sore than other muscles that are also used frequently. It is also important to note that training specifically does not necessarily mean trying to replicate competitive situations. Training should be based around what the athlete needs to improve and maintain. Training should be specific to the athlete's strengths and weaknesses and a game situation may may not adequately focus on this.
Athlete's should train the specific:
- energy system interplay
- fitness components used
- muscle groups and muscle actions used
- skills performed
Progressive Overload
Training produces a fatiguing effect in which muscle degenerates (catabolic effect) and this is followed by a fitness effect where muscle is repaired (anabolic effect). The body overcompensates to the stress placed on it by increasing it's capabilities to meet the demands imposed on it. The principle of overload aims to take advantage of this. Workloads are gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress takes place. The new workload should be introduced at the peak of the overcompensation phase as shown below. If a greater load is not introduced, fitness levels will plateau.
There are many parameters that can be manipulated to achieve overload. One, or at most two parameters should be increased each week. They should not be increased by no more than 10%. If intensity is adjusted, Nelson Physical Education recommends that it is only increased by 2%.
The example below is from the 2006 VCAA examination. It shows the correct application of overload for interval training. Note here that more than one variable is changed to achieve less than 10% overload. This is not a typical case of how overload is applied, but a change in the work to rest ratio is needed (to allow more rest) if the repetitions are to be increased. Note that if the repetitions are increased from 8 to 9 without changing any other variable, this is more than a 10% increase so this would be incorrect. Also note, that although more than two variables are changed, only one parameter is increased.
|
Work Time |
Intensity |
Repetitions |
Sets |
Rest period |
Work to rest ratio |
Frequency per week |
|
5 seconds |
95% Max heart rate |
8 |
3 |
25 seconds |
1:5 |
3 |
|
4.5 seconds |
No change |
9 |
No change |
22/23 seconds |
3:10 |
No change |
Once again, it needs to be stressed that overload should be progressive. Without a progressive overload, the catabolic effect will continue without time for the anabolic effect. This will cause fatigue, and extended periods will cause overtraining and increase the risk of injury. Similarly, not increasing the load at all, is not helpful. This is called underload, a load that is initially stressful will cease to be so after the body has adapted to the new demands. The athlete will show no further improvement if the body is not controllably stressed (see below). Other things to consider:
- the initial workload should be appropriate to the fitness level of the performer
- the overload should maintain the original aims of training, for example, interval training for a 100m sprinter should not increase to the stage that the lactic acid system is being more heavily trained. In this case increasing the sets or repetitions would be more suitable. Work to rest ratios should stay very similar.
- Apart from normal muscle soreness after a workout and the normal pain from exertion during a workout, an athlete should not feel pain - this sort of pain is not normal and is a sign of too much overload or injury.
Frequency
As long as time is allowed for sufficient recovery, the more frequent the training sessions, the greater the benefits. Activities of a higher intensity place more stress on the body and therefore need a lower frequency to allow for recovery. Aerobic training programs should involve more frequent sessions as less stress is placed on the body and there is less muscle damage. The appropriate principle of frequency should be observed with each fitness component. Some training methods will allow many components to be trained at once, hence saving time, for example, circuit training. Untrained individuals should gradually build up their training frequency as each training session will produce more of a fatiguing effect and hence need longer recovery. The following is what is recommended for increasing fitness:
- 3-6 sessions per week for aerobic training
- 3-4 sessions per week for anaerobic training
Intensity
Intensity is referred to as the 'quality' of training as it the most important factor, apart from overload and specificity in ensuring fitness gains. This is because the intensity of training is highly related to the demands that are placed on the specific energy systems, with a higher intensity placing higher stress on the body and therefore needing a longer recovery but also causing greater adaptations.
- The aerobic zone (65-85% HR max) is the minimum intensity for effective training
- The anaerobic zone (85-100% HR max) is best for athletes requiring anaerobic power
- Training at or above LIP, usually 85-90% HR max, improves LIP significantly and hence running speed
- Long interval training improves VO2 max. the most, however VO2 max. is a poor indicator of performance
Duration
Refers to either the length of each training session or the length of the training program needed for gaining significant fitness benefits. The following points should be observed:
- Aerobic training sessions should be at least 20-30 min
- Aerobic training programs show gains after 12 weeks
- Anaerobic training programs show gains after 8-10 weeks
- Strength training programs show gains after 6 weeks
- Flexibility training programs show gains after only a few sessions
Individuality
Each athlete is an individual with their own strengths and weaknesses; different roles, energy system interplay and fitness component demands (if they are in a team); different genes causing different physiological function; different preferences and motivators; predisposition to illness/injury. Therefore, in line with the principle of specificity, each training program should be specific to the requirements placed on the individual. These requirements can be assessed by doing an activity analysis and then fitness testing. In a team, there needs to be a balance of training that is specific to the individuals role and whole-team sessions that achieve mateship, teamwork, strategy and cohesion.
Diminishing Returns
As an individuals fitness level increases, the rate of improvement lessens thus creating diminishing returns (Live It Up 2, 2006).
Adaptation
See An Introduction to Training Adaptations, the SAID principle (Specific, Adaptation, Imposed, Demands)
Detraining/Reversibility
Just as the body adapts to training, it also adapts to detraining. This adaptation is in the form of the reversal of the changes that training causes. If the body no longer places demands on itself, it will start to return to it's former untrained state. The longer the training period, the longer this reversal will take, however the fitness gains are lost more quickly than they are gained. Aerobic fitness gains change significantly in 2-4 weeks, anaerobic gains take longer to be lost.
Retraining
After a period of detraining, a comparable period of retraining is needed to regain prior fitness levels. There is great debate over whether trained athletes regain fitness at a faster rate than those with lower fitness levels. There is no clear conclusion, what's more important is to know that fitness can be lost and needs training to be regained.
Maintenance
During the off-season and in recovery weeks in the periodisation process, fitness can be maintained by reducing the frequency- the quantity of training, but not the intensity. Maintenance is required so that fitness gains are not lost during break periods, the off-season is essential for allowing physiological and psychological regeneration and keeping motivation. Generally, at least two sessions per week are required for maintaining fitness.
Variety
Including variety in a training program helps to maintain interest and to motivate an athlete. It is important however, that specificity is still maintained in training, therefore, training added for variety should be supplementary to the main training program and not ignore the main goals of the athlete.
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